Sustainable Mountain Management: A Case Study from the Malatya Mountains, Se Taurus


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Sustainable Mountain Management: A Case Study from the Malatya Mountains, Se Taurus

İbrahim Atalay

Department of Geography Buca Faculty of Education Dokuz Eylul University Buca, Izmir, Turkey

Abstract

The mountainous areas of Turkey contain various parent materials or rocks belonging to different geological time. Most of the parent materials are exposed due to the intense erosion. For this reason parent material affects the soil forming process and habitat types in the study area. In other words parent material role is very important for the determining of the natural environment properties. The Malatya Mountains which are composed of limestone, gneiss and micaschist, ultrabasic and ultramafic rocks (peridotite-serpentine-gabro), flysch and limestone form different habitats or ecological units because of the fact that cation exchange capacity or plant nutriments change considerably according to the physical and chemical properties and weathering situation of the parent materials. Cation exchange capacity (CEC) of the gneiss is lower than 15 me/ 100 g, whereas CEC of the limestones changes between 30 and 40 me/100 g. But this figure ranges from 2 to 30 me/100 g on the peridotite and serpentine depending on weathering conditions. There are close relationships between the parent material and land degradation. Each parent material group shows special importance against the degradational effects. For instance deep gully and sheet erosion are common on the gneiss because sandy particles of well weathered gneiss are carried away easily on the steep slopes by the run-off. This area that is found in the Kahta watershed is dissected by deep gullies. The sustainable development and management of the mountainous areas mostly depend on the parent materials where natural equilibrium has been deteriorated. Flysch and well weathered gneiss are suitable for the reforestation and afforestation activities on the semiarid and sub humid parts of the Malatya Mountains. The upper parts of the mountains should be devoted for grazing according to biomass productivity of the grass. Oak seeds should be put within the cracks and holes containing soil in order to provide good germination and generation. Key words: Sustainable management, mountain ecosystem, parent material

Introduction

Study area covers the Malatya Mountains which is one of the branch of the Southeastern Taurus Mountains. These mountains extending between the Malatya basin in the north and the Adıyaman plateau in the south begin at an elevation of c. 1000 m in the southern edge of the Malatya basin and rise up to 2500 m (Kelebek T. 2430 m, Türkdağı 2608 m, Bey M. 2591 m, Karabey T. 2424 m and Sillan T. 2545 m). Study area is also located found a transitional region between Eastern Anatolia and the Southeastern Anatolian geographical region (Fig . 1) (Atalay, 2002). The Malatya mountains are consisted of mainly Paleozoic metamorphic schists and limestones. Tertiary formations lie in the northern edge of these mountains, the ophiolites complex is common in the southern branch of the mountains. Gneiss and mica schists are common in the vicinity of Çelikhan town.

Climatically, as a whole, semiarid climatic conditions prevails in the study area. But there is considerable differences between the northern and southern slopes of Malatya Mountains in terms of precipitation and vegetation composition. Malatya basin receiving less than 400 mm precipitation is the arid part of the area on which steppe vegetation is dominant. In the slopes facing north of the Malatya mountains the mean annual precipitation is about 400-500 mm and the mean annual temperature is c. 13oC. Sun radiation intensity is high during the summer period due to low content air humidity. The climatic conditions provide the well growth of the apricot which is the best known fruit of Malatya Basin and Turkey. The mean annual temperature fall below 5oC in the upper part of the mountainous areas. The mean annual precipitation varies between 400 mm and 1000 mm. As to the southern sector of the Malatya mountains, climatic conditions of this slope are different from the northern slope. The mean annual precipitation is more than 600 mm, this figure attains more than 1000 mm in the upper part of the mountains due to the fact that the fronts coming from the Mediterranean basin are intercepted by the mountain. Frontal occlusion takes place on the southern slopes. This event leads to the increase of precipitation. For this reason humid oak species called Quercus libani grows commonly on the southern slopes. From the point of ecological view, the Malatya Mountains belong to the oak forest and subalpine grass ecosystem. Oak forest begins at elevation of c. 1000 m and continues up to 2000/2200 m.

The economy of the rural people depend, to a great extent, on subsidence agriculture and animal husbandry. Crop production relies on irrigation a system of channels that diverted water from the karstic sources. Animal husbandry activities are based on a system of transhumance, in general. During the summer months, some rural people go to the upland part of the Malatya Mountain in order to graze their animals. They stay three or four months in the tents or primitive houses. During the winter period they return to their own villages. The oak branches containing leaves are cut and dried up in order to obtain fodder and fuel. The leaves of the oak are the main fodder of animals. Over and early grazing, misuse of land and forest destruction are the main responsible factors for the deterioration of natural equilibrium in the study area.

Material and Methods

In order to explain of the natural environment and to illuminate of the Malatya Mountains soil and parent material samples are taken. Texture, pH, CaCO3 and CEC of the parent materials and soils are taken into consideration to determine the importance of the parent material in the ecosystem. Stud area is divided into ecosystems according to the climatic, topographic, parent material and soil properties.

Results

The ecosystem of the Malatya Mountains can be classified into two main zonobiomes. The northern slopes of the Malatya Mountains area belongs to the Eastern Anatolian Continental Zonobiome or Region (Fig. 2). The Malatya Basin on which semiarid climatic condition prevail is found within the Steppe Subregion. The northern slopes of the Malatya Mountains area belong the Dry Forest Oak Subregion. While the southern part of the Malatya Mountains area is found the Southeastern Anatolian Transitional Region which is located between Mediterranean and Eastern Anatolian continental climatic region. The upper part of the Malatya Mountains belong to the Subalpine orobiome (Atalay 2002). The physical and chemical properties of parent materials determine considerable the ecoregions or ecological units which can be called geobiome due to natural equilibrium has been deteriorated. In other words, parent material is exposed on the sloppy areas due to soil has been in a great extent transported. In order to explain the ecoregion the importance of the parent material effects on the environment can be taken into consideration (Atalay 2000, 2002, and Gerrard 1981).

Flysch ecosystem : Eocene and Paleocene flysch formation extends on the northern edges of the Malatya mountains. Clay, marl, sand stone, and thin soft limestone layer extends alternately. This formation is mostly devoted for agricultural land due to easily cultivated. Vineyards are common on these terrains because the roots of the grape vine penetrate easily deeper part and take adequately nutriments from the parent material. Indeed the cation exchange capacity (CEC) is about 35 me/100 g parent material. Deep chestnut soil (mollisol) is found on the flat land which is composed of flysch. In this soil calcium carbonate content increases from the top soil to the subsoil due to leaching, pH is 7,5, and CEC is about 30 me/100 g soil. The other property of the flysch deposit is that it has been subjected to erosion easily. Because the sandy and silty particles are easily transported by the runoff, so that after the intense rainfall one can see the formation of rill erosion on the sloppy area.

Karstic ecosystem : Karstic lands composed of mainly paleozoic limestones and partly eocene limestone cover vast area in the Malatya Mountains. They contain many karstic sources emerging along the valley and in the lower edges of the mountains. Principal karstic sources are Pınarbaşı, Takas (Sürgü), Konak, Ordüzü. The agricultural activities in Malatya plain and its surroundings mainly depend on the water obtaining from the karstic sources. It can be stated that karstic sources have vital importance in the Malatya province. Population more than 600 000 obtain drinking water from the karstic sources (Atalay 1997a). Karstic lands are the main occurrence areas of oak forest. The roots of oaks easily develop along the cracks and bedding surface of limestones. Soil formation in the karstic lands is mainly determined by the limestone purity, situation of the cracks and the inclination of the beds. The thin bedded limestones produce richer soils than the massive rocks. This is because these types of limestone are good water retainers. For instance, red Mediterranean soils (Terra Rossa or Alfisols) are abundantly found on the thin bedded and fractured limestones. While the soils which are found on/in massive and hard limestones are thinner. The dissolution of limestones along the vertical fractures leads to the widening of fractures, this process is very well expressed in the mesozoic limestones in the Malatya Mountains. Soils which developed along the fractures, have been transported vertically by a widening of the fractures via chemical dissolution of the limestones. Thus the soil mass may be removed from the near surface to much deeper zones by vertical transportation with time. Such soils, in general are red and completely decalcified. This explains why soils are found in the fillings of caves and of karstic depressions (Atalay 1997b). Soil erosion processes generally do not occur on the surfaces of the karstic lands because of the fact that the run-off is very low and the rock has a high infiltration capacity (Atalay 1995, 1997a, 1997b). The fractures in the limestones provide suitable conditions for oxidation so that through Fe oxidation soils attain a reddish colour. Soil material in the karstic land is of clay which is the main remaining material after the removal of calcium carbonate. For this reason the soil which is found in the karstic land is of clayey texture (Atalay 1998, 1999). Most of the karstic lands in the Malatya Mountains have been converted into bare land by the destruction of oak forests. In order to maintain the natural equilibrium, potential and the increase of karstic water supply it is necessary reforestation and afforestation activities (Atalay 1999). Grazing must be arranged according to biomass capacity of the herbaceous plants in the meadows or rangelands which are found on the upper parts of the Malatya Mountains.

Serpentine-peridotite ecosystem : These ultrabasic rocky area occurring in the eastern and southern part of the study area is seen as a bare land because natural vegetation has been completely destroyed and so parent material exposed. This area shows special importance in the distribution of plant and erosion control measurement, reforestation and afforestation activities. The nutriments changes in a great extent on the exposed serpentine-periotite areas regarding to weathering process and degree. Less weathered rocky surfaces contain low plant nutriment. In that areas CEC is lower than 10 me/100 g. For this reason there areas remain as a bare lands. Plant cover is very sparse in the well weathered but not leached areas due to the fact that they contain abundantly clay and bases that form a poison effects for plant. In that ground CEC is over 40 me/100 g. Plant cover is rich and suitable for agricultural purpose in places where bases and carbonates have considerable leached. In that areas CEC changes between 30 and 40 me/100 g. In order to regain natural equilibrium in the deteriorated peridotite-serpentine areas in terms of forestry, these areas should be protected from the grazing and other utilisation. Plant must be planted after deep plough of the flat land for both water conservation and plant roots development.

Genesis ecosystem: This rock unit extending as a belt along the southern part of the study area also shows special habitat for erosion and reforestation. As it is known, gneiss produces sandy soil that contains mostly quartzitic particles. These fine particles are being carried away by the runoff on the sloppy area. In these areas deep gullies and rills are widespread. Slope debris are common on the slopes of gullies due to natural equilibrium has been deteriorated. Although CEC is low, these areas produce good habitat for the growth of forest because tree roots develop easily in the well weathered gneiss surfaces. One can see good stand artificial forest composed of cedar and black pine in the vicinity of Çelikhan Town (Fig. 2).

Subalpine ecosystem : This ecosystem appears after the natural timberline extending over at an elevation of 2000-2200 m in the upper part of the Malatya mountains. Subhumid and cold climatic conditions prevail. In this area high mountain soil having acid reaction and rich organic content is common. Indeed, the pH of this soil shows weak acid reaction and its organic content is about 5 % and carbonates have been carried away due to excess precipitation. CEC of this soil varies between 26 and 28 me/100 g soil. This ecosystem is the main meadow areas of sheep and goats. Grass productivity is high on the karstic depressions containing thick soil cover. Most of the climax herbaceous species have been disappeared because of early and heavy-grazing system. For this reason spiny cushion species which are composed of Acantholimon and Astragalus sp. and bitter species with Euphorbia and Verbascum which are not eaten by animals are widespread.

Conclusions

1. Mountainous areas have generally been degenerated and degraded due to misuse of the lands. Karstic lands have been converted into rocky lands as the result of the forest destruction. Soft parent materials composed of flysch and well weathered gneiss have undergone to gully and rill erosion. The sediment yields of these parent materials are very much than that of the other parent materials. For example the sediment yield of 1 sequare kilometre of Kahta watershed areas connecting the Atatürk Dam is more than 2500 tons.
2. Ecological unites or habitats are determined by the physical and chemical properties parent material in places where natural equilibrium have been deteriorated. In other words, ecological properties of the study area are based on the parent materials.
3. In order to establish the regain of natural equilibrium in the mountainous areas some important measures may be taken as follows:

The sustainable use of the natural resources, in broad sense including the protection of environment, is dependent on the economic and social development of the rural people. For this reason some measurements, relating to the education, settlement rehabilitation, innovation in the animal husbandry, marketing, economic aids, various extension etc should be taken into consideration.

References

. Atalay, I., 1995. Pedogenesis and ecology of karstic lands in Turkey. Acta Carsologia, 24, pp.53-67.
. Atalay, I., 1997a. Karstic sources in Malatya Province, east of Turkey. Proceedings of the 7the International Symposium on Water Tracing Protoroz/Slovenia, 36-31 May, 1997. Tracer Hydrology, Ed. A. Kranjc, pp.199-201.
. Atalay, I., 1997b. Red Mediterranean soils in the karstic regions of Taurus Mountains, Turkey. Catena, 28, pp. 247-260.
. Atalay, ‹., 1999. Land use in the karstic lands in the Mediterranean Region. International Journal of Speleology. Vol. 28 B(1/4) pp.111-118.
. Atalay, I., 2000. Land degradation of the Mountainous areas in Turkey. Proceedings of International Symposium on Desertification, ISD 13-17 June 2000, Konya, Turkey. pp.149-157.
. Atalay, I., 2002. Ecoregions of Turkey (in press).
. Gerrard. A. J., 1981. Soils and Landforms An Integration of Geomorphology and Pedology, George Allen and Unwin, London.

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