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Dicle OĞUZ Ankara University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Landscsape Architecture, Ankara, Turkey Abstract The world is in the midst of a disturbing period of growing consumption, population, and environmental degradation. From global warming to biodiversity loss to patterns of sprawling land consumption, the environmental trends are increasingly dire. Cities will by necessity play an increasingly important role in addressing these problems. We can define ecological design as any form of design that minimizes environmentally destructive impacts by integrating itself with living processes. This integration implies that the design respects species diversity, minimizes resource depletion, preserves nutrient and water cycles, maintains habitat quality and attends to all the other preconditions of human and ecosystem health (Van der Ryne and Cowan 1996). Ecological design in Urban Areas brings about many recommendations and precautions for land use, city centers, pedestrianized centers, and strategies for greening the urban environment. This paper examines the ecological design implementations in some European cities and puts forward various recommendations for use. Research shows all of these ideas have potential applications in Turkish cities. Introduction Ecological design is simply the effective adaptation to and integration with nature's processes. Its scope is rich enough to embrace the work of architects rethinking their choices of building materials, the civil engineers reformulating the flood control strategy, and industrial designers curtailing their use of toxic compounds. Ecological design provides a coherent framework for redesigning our landscapes, buildings, cities and systems of energy, water, food, manufacturing and waste. We define ecological design as "any form of design that minimizes environmentally destructive impacts by integrating itself with living processes". The integration implies that the design respects species diversity, minimizes resource depletion, preserves nutrient and water cycles, maintains habitat quality and attends to all the other preconditions of human and ecosystem health (Van der Ryne and Cowan 1996). The first generation of ecological design was based on small-scale experiments with living lightly in place. Many of the technologies and ideas of this generation, such as alternative building materials, renewable energy, organic foods, conservation and recycling have been widely adopted separately. Ecological design begins with the particularities of place, the climate, topography, soils, water, plants and animals, flows of energy and materials and other factors. The task is to integrate the design with these conditions in a way that respects the health of the place. Material and Method The aim of this research is to define the concept of ecological design as well as to clarify its main application areas and devices through the examples in European countries. The recommendations developed for the design of urban areas and mentioned within this declaration are divided into two categories; one of which is related with the planning decision and the strategies whereas the other is directly related with urban design applications. Even this situation itself expresses that the ecological design in urban areas is such a detailed and wide ranged matter which initiates by planning decision and strategies and leads to one to one designs that has a strong link with each other. The research has been based upon a detailed literature survey not only to define the various dimensions of ecological design but also exemplify the different designs in urban areas. The examination of this research covers the European cities that represent the best practices of ecological urban design. This subject selection among the European cities has been made through the Beatley 2000, City and Environment 1994, Best Practice (Ministry of Housing special planing and the environment Netherlands), Mixes uses in Buildings, Blocks and Quarters 1993 , Green Paper on the Urban Environment 1990. Related with this literature survey the cities such as Berlin, Copenhagen, Den Haag, Utrecht, Rotterdam and Vienna are selected to be examined from the point of their ecological designs since these cities have built a pattern for future designs in urban areas. The research materials of all sorts of printed documents including books and journals, city development plans and slides taken at site visits are collected from the selected European cities. These below mentioned four steps can summarize the method conducted to actualize this study. First step is the examination of related literature to form the concept of ecological urban design. Secondly the matter is the clarification of solutions and precautions to the problems that effect environment and living quality in urban areas. Third step is the presentation of the mentioned precautions and recommendations applied within the selected European cities, based upon the research and the observations. Finally, analyzing the further developments in this matter based upon the examples of European cities which has already passed the industrialization period. Results Cities play an increasingly important role in addressing various environmental problems. The attributes and specific designs featured in the presented projects vary, but they tend to have in common emphasis on minimizing the ecological footprint of their residents, and they tend to include high energy conservation standards, low water usage, the use of sustainable building materials, an emphasis on recycling and material reuse, and the incorporation of solar energy in the form of solar panels among other features. These projects also emphasize minimizing the role of, or doing without, the automobile. Most are sited in close proximity to public transit, emphasize walking and bicycling as mobility options, and typically restrict the number of spaces provided for automobiles. Land Use Compact urban form is one of the important components of an ecological design. Despite some degree of urban spread, European cities have been largely able to maintain their compactness and density. Because of the value attached to rural and undeveloped lands compact urban form is considered necessary in many European countries. In Europe rural and agricultural lands are not seen as transient or residual activities but as important primary societal uses. The green paper on the Urban Environment for example strongly endorses the avoidance of sprawl and instead recommends that new development be guided into existing areas and abandoned lands in need of redevelopment (Commission of The European Communities 1990). There is a consensus among planners and policy makers that this is the appropriate direction for European cities. There are several advantages of this tight urban structure such as the extensive amount of open space and natural lands often owned by cities and good public transit, means that European urban residents have relatively quick access to natural areas. The European Cities demonstrate that it is possible to achieve compact urban form at the same time that green spaces in and around cities are protected. In Helsinki and Copenhagen, large wedges of green space and nature extend into the very center. In many respects, it is the very compactness that allows these networks of green space to exist in such proximity to large populations. Good public transit system that make outlying green spaces easy to reach even from the very core of the city, is another important gradient. A detailed climate study serves as a major environmental basis for the land use plan for Graz. This city has pollution problems that are the result of a combination of topographic conditions, and inversions that occur in certain months of the year. Climatopes and wind circulation patterns have been extensively mapped, and problem areas identified. Policies flow directly from these conditions, including mandating that certain areas of the city must convert to the city's district heating network by a certain date, as well as the preparation of a new landscape plan that will better protect green space in and around the city (Beatley 2000). Vitality of City Centers and Mixed use The common problem faced in most European cities the rundown or urban decline inner city areas". As a result of numerous efforts, the quality and attractiveness of the city centers were maintained and enhanced. In most of the study cities, the center area has remained a mixed-use zone, with a significant residential population. A common pattern is the location of residential units above retail shops and offices (as in most Dutch cities and towns, for example). An extensive system of pedestrian streets and the presence of many amenities have made the center an attractive place to live near. Many European cities are investing major resources in supporting new development in city center locations. Examples of such projects on quite a massive scale can be seen in Berlin and Den Haag. In Berlin the largest new development site is the Potzdamer Platz, where 1.1 million square meters of office and residential space are under construction. This new area will be served by major new transit investments with a planned model split of 20 percent private car and 80 percent public transit and will be served with central heating and cooling. For example in Groningen "cohesive set of measures to improve the center are: the creation of new pedestrian only shopping areas, the installation of yellow brick surfaces in walking areas, the installation of new street furniture and the adaptation a new public transit concept includes making the center car free, providing free peripheral parking and direct bus service to the center, replacing street parking with a series of underground car parks on the edge of the city center, and increasing the number of cycling paths (Groningen Gemeente 1993;1996; Beatley 2000). Together these measures are designed to improve the access to and attractiveness of the center. The relatively high density and compact urban structure of European cities are critical features in determining their sustainability on other measures. These features make possible or at least much easier, many of the other qualities that have been discussed above, including the high use of public transit, high walkability, vital and vibrant civic spaces, the use of extremely efficient district heating systems, and the protection of large systems of extremely accessible green spaces. There are many lessons to be learned from these European Cities in terms of both design and building of new residential districts and the broader scales of community and regional planning. Especially impressive in these European Cities is the attention paid to streetscapes and public space. In addition to pedestrian only streets there are numerous examples of street enhancement efforts. Many of these cities have taken a host of actions including tree planting, increased places to sit, and public sculptures and other forms of art, to make streets and public spaces more desirable places to be. These streets include, for example, Mariahilfstrasse in Vienna, Damrak in Amsterdam and Copenhagen city center . These urban centers represents the best conditions and qualities of an ecological design as definition, human scale, visual complexity, complex and detailed facades, diversity of uses, focal points, and significant destinations, and places to sit and stand among others (Beatley 2000). Beginning in the 1960s, and continuing today, many European cities have been gradually pedestrianizing parts of their centers taking space away from cars and parking and returning it to the pedestrian. This has had the effect of not only helping to control the automobiles, but also creating city centers and downtown areas that are much more inviting places to visit and shop. Copenhagen is the best examples of a successful and continual effort to pedestrianize a city center. A variety of specific traffic calming strategies and technologies exist. These strategies include speed humps, curb and sidewalk extensions, raised brickwork, bollards and physical barriers of all types and creative use of trees (placement of trees in streets and parking lots). Strategies for Greening the Urban Environment A number of strategies for protecting and promoting green have been pursued by the European cities. One approach has been to mandate a high degree of green and nature enhancing features as part of new development or redevelopment schemes. Many examples can be cited of new development projects that will incorporate or have incorporated (such as the Vienna Woods) extensive natural areas in close proximity to residents. While at the same time accommodating a relatively high density of people and development. Many of these European cities have a long history of protecting extensive systems of open space, woodlands, and natural areas in close proximity to urban areas. Many are structured around the notion of open space fingers, or wedges, that penetrate urban centers. Another important point is that largely as a result of the density, compactness, and design of European cities, residents have phenomenal access to large areas of open space and nature. Many European cities are attempting to bring nature into the city center and to develop physical and ecological connections between built up areas of the city and surrounding natural areas and green spaces. European cities offer many positive examples of efforts to incorporate green features and nature into the design of the built environment. One of the key notions behind rooftop gardens, green roofs, greening courtyards and other urban green strategies necessary compensation for the loss of green space brought about through urban buildings development. Efforts have also been made in many of these cities to avoid large areas of paving or hard surface without trees and vegetation. Very often permeable brick or paving material is also emphasized. Green roofs, or eco-roofs as they are sometimes called, have become increasingly common in Europe, especially in Germany and the Netherlands, and provide many benefits over conventional roofs. Among their key advantages are the protection they provide from UV rays and the ability to extend the life of a roof, the ability to cool the urban environment (addressing the urban heat island effect), carbon dioxide sequestration, the control of storm water run off, and the provision significant habitat, especially for plants, invertebrates, and birds. Traditionally two styles or types of green roofs are distinguished -intensive or traditional roof gardens, and extensive or ecological rooftops. The former -typically referred to as roof gardens_ includes structures that can accommodate deep soils, trees, and shrubs, and deeper rooted vegetation. Because of the depth of the soil cover required for intensive roof gardens, additional structural reinforcement is typically needed, as well as more active and intensive management. Extensive rooftop systems or ecological roofs_ typically involve coverage of the entire rooftop with a relatively thin covering of soil and vegetation. Green roofs have the potential to make a tremendous difference in the visual landscape and qualities of cities. The use of extensive green roofs has become increasingly common in the Netherlands, and a number of creative applications there can be cited such as the terminal building at Schipol Airport, technical University in Delft, and the GWL-terrein housing project in Amsterdam. European cities and towns offer many other examples of creative urban greening. Green walls are especially common in German cities, and green walls provide many of the same benefits as green roofs. Wall vegetation shields against UV rays, provides shading and cooling during summer months and insulation during winter months (as much as 30 percent, according to Johnston and Newton 1997) and provides protection against chemical weathering. Health benefits of green walls include the filtering of air pollutants, the minimizing of noise and positive humidifying effects. Many of the ecological housing projects or ecological renewal projects demonstrate a remarkable ability to create green-space. Kennedy and Kennedy 1997, in their study of European ecological settlements, observe the positive qualities of many of these projects for children and the provision of impressive natural play spaces: Ecological settlements with diverse automobile free open areas offer an ideal opportunity to develop this kind of play environment around the residences_alleys, paths, courtyards, lawns, and spaces surrounding tenant gardens and community facilities_constitute a coherent play scope, which no longer requires any need for specially designed play grounds. In contrast to conventional settlement projects which are often marked by an unnecessary high degree of sealed surfaces and "manicured" green spaces, which hardly enhance children to play. On the other hand ecological settlement projects have play areas, which are usually characterized by minimum paving, plenty of vegetation, and porous surfaces, e.g. gravel areas with spontaneous vegetation rather then by "manicured" landscaping. Recommendations Urban environments can and should become more fundamentally green and natural. The examined European cities provide a tremendous variety of creative and inspirational ideas for greening the urban landscape. These ideas range from strategic tree planting, ecological roofs, and desealing of urban pavement, to the incorporation of a range of ecological features into new development projects and renovated urban districts. Virtually all of these ideas have potential application in Turkish cities. In given examples, the emphasis, especially in the Netherlands, on developing ecological networks _an integrated coherent strategy for protecting and restoring natural landscapes_ is one of the most important lessons to be learned. A Nature Policy Plan needs to be prepared and a National Ecological Network should be elaborated for Turkey. In addition to these a climate zone plan should be prepared and wind circulation patterns should be map. In new housing development areas should be designed according to data gained by these studies. References . Beatley, T., 2000. Green Urbanism, Island Press, Washington DC. . Beavis, M. A., 1993. "Sustainable Uses of Urban Open Space: A Guide to the Literature", Issues In Urban Sustainability-2, Institute of Urban Studies, The University of Winnipeg, p:1-36. . Bell, S., 1999. Landscape: Pattern, Perception and Process, E&FN SPON, New York. . Gordon, D., 1990. Green Cities, Ecologically Sound Approaches to Urban Space, Black Rose Books, Canada . Best Practices, 1996. Ministry of Housing Spacial Planning and the Environment, The Netherlands . City and Environment, 1994. European Commission, Brussels . Green Paper on the Human Environment. 1990., Commission of the European Communities, Brussels. . Harrison, C., Burgess, J., Millward, A., Dave, G., 1995. "Accessible Natural Greenspace in Towns and Cities", English Nature Research Reports No:153. . Kennedy, M., Kennedy, D., (eds). 1997. Designing Ecological Settlements: Ecological Planning and Building: Experiences in new Housing and in the Renewal of Existing Mixed Uses in Buildings, Blocks and Quarters, 1993. Final Report, European Commission, Brussels . Platt, R. H., Rowntree,R.A., Muick, P. C., 1994. The Ecological City, The University of Massachusetts press, Amherst Thompson, J., W., 1998. "Grass-roofs Movement", Landscape Architecture, May, pp.47-51. . Van Der Ryn, S. and Cowan, S., 1996. Ecological Design, Island Press, USA. |